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Abstract: Airborne Information for Lateral Spacing (AILS) is an airborne-based concept for independent, instru ment approaches to closely-spaced parallel runways that enables the use of both runways during instrument approach conditions. AILS provides an inde pendent instrument approach capability applicable to parallel runways with centerline spacing between 4,300 and 2,500 feet, the range of runway spacing for most domestic airlines' hub airports. The airlines' ability to maintain schedules is severely impacted when one or more airports are forced to curtail independent parallel approaches because of inclement weather. The AILS system safely maintains high airport acceptance rates, not possible with current systems and procedures, during low visibility conditions.

Abstract: This study examined the operational implementation of an airborne system that would support Closely Spaced Parallel Approach (CSPA) operations at airports with parallel runways during Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). Data analyses are in prog ress.

Abstract: Cockpit displays need to be substantially improved to serve the goals of situational awareness, conflict detection, and path replanning, in Free Flight. This paper describes the design of such an advanced cockpit display, along with an initial simulation based usability evaluation. Flight crews were particularly enthusiastic about color coding for relative altitude, dynamically pulsing predictors, and the use of 3-D flight plans for alerting and situational awareness.

Abstract: This study compares and contrasts conflict resolutions as performed by pilots with and without a resolution decision support tool, and a fully automated conflict resolution tool that generates optimal (smallest path deviation) resolutions. The conflict geometries investigated were all factorial combinations of three levels of intruder aircraft speed, three levels of initial Ownship distance to minimum separation, and nine conflict angles. The resolution decision support tools included dynamic conflict alerting, which indicated whether a proposed path was conflict free, and a dynamic predictor system that showed a fast time depiction of the proposed resolution trajectories. The automation-generated resolutions, computed using a geometric optimization algorithm, served as a benchmark against which the pilot-generated resolutions were compared. Without decision support tools the pilot-generated resolutions were often ineffective, particularly at lower conflict angles. The resolutions tended to be effective when the decision support tools were used. Resolution cost, as measured by added path length, was greater for pilot-generated resolutions (averaging 2.7 nm) compared to the automation-generated resolutions (averaging 1.2 nm). When pilots had the decision support tools, their strategies, as indexed by whether they turned toward or away from the Intruder, tended to be the same as that of the automated system.

Abstract: Today’s crowded airspace burdens both the pilot and controller with a heavy workload pertaining to the maintenance of conflict-free flight. Conflict detection and resolution (CD&R) tools have become a key element in modern flight systems and future airspace concept simulations. In this paper we describe an automated resolution tool that was developed at NASA Ames Research Center as part of an experimental evaluation of the Distributed Air-Ground concept. The tool is based on an analysis of conflict geometry and was developed as an intent (i.e. flight plan) resolution system. A key simplifying concept used in the development of airborne automated resolutions is the notion of “Rules of the Road” - a set of rules that uniquely assigns responsibility for the mitigation of a conflict. This paper outlines the challenges in developing such an automated resolution tool, as well as the lessons learned and the limitations observed.

Abstract: In the Distributed Air Ground Traffic Management (DAG-TM) simulation environments pilots flew desktop simulators, which included a Cockpit Situation Display (CSD). Within the current paper we will briefly review the tasks pilots were responsible for in the simulations and subsequently evaluate the tools made available on the CSD to assist the pilots in executing their tasks. Some of the tasks pilots were responsible for in the simulations included the following: to create and evaluate user-preferred routes, meet flight scheduling requirements at the meter fix, self-space behind designated aircraft, and maintain separation with other aircraft. Some of the tools offered within the CSD to facilitate these tasks included a Route Analysis Tool (RAT), a Waypoint table with capabilities to input scheduling requirements, a Spacing tool, and Conflict Detection and Alerting logic. A detailed examination of these features and others will be discussed

Abstract: Two versions of a prototype Free Flight cockpit situational display (Basic and Enhanced) were examined in a simulation at the NASA Ames Research Center. Both displays presented a display of traffic out to a range of 120 NM, and an alert when the automation detected a substantial danger of losing separation with another aircraft. The task for the crews was to detect and resolve threats to separation posed by intruder aircraft. An Enhanced version of the display was also examined. It incorporated two additional conflict alerting levels and tools to aid in trajectory prediction and path planning. Ten crews from a major airline participated in the study. Performance analyses and pilot debriefings showed that the Enhanced display was preferred, and that minimal separation between the intruder and the ownship was larger with the Enhanced display. In addition, the additional information on the Enhanced display did not lead crews to engage in more maneuvering. Instead an opposite trend was indicated. Finally, crews using the Enhanced display responded more proactively, tending to resolve alerts earlier.

Abstract: Distributed Air-Ground (DAG) research examines interactions between the airborne flight crew and ground-based air traffic controllers. A controller facility and several separate locations of simulated piloted aircraft were linked to create the air traffic environ ment. This simulation demonstrated technologies and procedures related to DAG concepts in the Advanced Concepts Flight Simulator (ACFS).

Abstract: National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Distributed Air Ground Traffic Management (DAG-TM) program has recently investigated a concept called “En-route Free Maneuvering” as a proposed solution for expanding airspace capacity limits. A critical element for this concept is conflict detection and resolution (CD&R) using the 3D cockpit situation display (CSD). The only fielded system performing some of this function is the Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), a radar-based alerting system used by most commercial aircraft for collision detection and avoidance. TCAS is inappropriate for an en-route self-separation application due to its reactive nature, and inherent lack of flexibility. Therefore, a new system was designed with improved intent information in the form of 4D flight plans, broadcast and shared amongst en-route aircraft, which in turn allowed these aircraft to detect and resolve conflicts well in advance of a projected conflict. A key element in this approach is ensuring that burdening, the assignment of final responsibility for conflict resolution is clearly assigned to the aircraft not in right-of-way. The basis for this burdening is called the rules-of-the-road (ROR), a term taken from the rules designed for guiding collision avoidance in VFR (visual flight rules). Given the potential complexity of determining burdening assignment, the automation described herein computes assignment using these rules, and then notifies the crew if it has the right-of-way or is burdened to resolve the conflict.

Abstract: This study investigated visual search performance for target aircraft symbols on a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI). Of primary interest was the influence of target brightness (intensity) and highlighting validity (search directions) on the ability to detect a target aircraft among distractor aircraft. Target aircraft were distinguished by an airspace course that conflicted with Ownship (that is, the participant’s aircraft). The display could present all (homogenous) bright aircraft, all (homogenous) dim aircraft, or mixed bright and dim aircraft, with the target aircraft being either bright or dim. In the mixed intensity condition, participants may or may not have been instructed whether the target aircraft was bright or dim. Results indicated that highlighting validity facilitated better detection times. However, instead of bright targets being detected faster, dim targets were found to be detected more slowly in the mixed intensity display than in the homogenous display. This relative slowness may be due to a delay in confirming the dim aircraft to be a target when it was among brighter distractor aircraft. This hypothesis will be tested in future research.

Abstract: The present experiment employed target detection tasks to investigate attentional deployment during visual search for target aircraft symbols on a cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI). Targets were defined by either a geometric property (aircraft on a collision course with Ownship) or a textual property (aircraft with associated altitude tags indicating an even altitude level). Effects of target location and target brightness (highlighting) were examined. Target location was systematically related to target detection time, and this interacted with the target's defining property (collision geometry or associated text). Highlighting (which was not linked to whether an aircraft symbol was the target) did not influence target detection time.

Liao, M. & Johnson, W. W. (2001). Effect of transformed visual-motor spatial mappings and droplines on 3-D target acquisition strategy and performance. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting, Minneapolis/ St. Paul, Minnesota, 1367-1371.

Abstract: The concept of free flight introduces many challenges for both air and ground aviation operations. Of considerable concern has been the issue of moving from centralized control and responsibility to decentralized control and distributed responsibility for aircraft separation. Data from capacity studies suggest that we will reach our capacity limits with ATC centralized control within the next 2 decades, if not sooner. Based on these predictions, research on distributed air-ground concepts was under taken by NASA Advanced Air Transportation Technologies Program to identify and develop air-ground concepts in support of free-flight operations. This paper will present the results of a full mission air-ground simulation conducted in the NASA Crew Vehicle Systems Research Facility. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of advanced displays with “intent” (4-D flight plans) information on flight crew and ATC performance during limited free-flight operations. To assess the value of 4/D intent information (flight plans) flight crews performed real time, strategic, flight path re-planning with and without flight plan information on surround traffic during en route free flight operations. To support the re-planning task flight crews used an enhanced cockpit situation display (CSD) and a route assessment tool to identify traffic conflicts and develop alternative de-conflicted flight plans. The modified de-conflicted flight plan was then submitted to ATC for approval, and after approval loaded into the autopilot (FMS). Two levels of ATC authority were evaluated during the study: (1) limited authority – ATC would only intervene if a loss of separation were imminent; (2) full authority – ATC would run the sector as they would normally. After loading the new flight plan it was data linked to all surrounding traffic. The results of the study suggest that flight crews with advanced 4-D flight plan information can perform strategic self-separation during operations in densely populated traffic environments. And when ATC remains in the information and approval loop, flight deck strategic self-separation is not disruptive to normal ATC sector operations. The results also showed that when flight crews had access to 4-D flight plan information they were more efficient and their workload was reduced; they made smaller deviations for traffic, reduced their trip length for non-traffic related maneuvers, and had fewer ARAT (advanced route assessment tool) events. Crew responses to 3-D and 4-D traffic information, display de-clutter features, and the advanced flight re-planning tools were positive overall, however they rated both dial and touch-pad input controls neutral.

Abstract: This paper discusses some of the technical and institutional human factors-related issues surrounding the subject of the human element in ADS-B flight operations. It also proposes a procedural-based rulemaking strategy. This strategy would facilitate further development and implementation of the human factors and enabling flight technical standards and operational procedures needed to make free flight acceptable to the pilot, controller, the user community, and to the certification authorities. The principal finding of this paper is that we are now at the brink of having sufficient knowledge from which to develop a new set of operating rules—Free Flight operational “rules of engagement”—termed Electronic Flight Rules (EFR).

Abstract: Flight activities during the Cargo Airline Association’s Ohio Valley Operations Evaluation (OpEval) were focused on near-term Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI) applications. Seven CDTI applications were ranked from highest to lowest priority, and the first two, Enhanced Visual Acquisition for “See & Avoid”, and Enhanced Visual Approaches, were evaluated during OpEval. Five other applications were demonstrated. For tetailed, he Enhanced Visual Acquisition and Enhanced Visual Approach applications, a dcomprehensive operational concept document was prepared. The operational concept and the associated CDTI requirements were tested during OpEval. Both pilots and controllers reported that the CDTI augmented the visual acquisition and visual approach tasks and improved pilot awareness of surrounding traffic. Additionally, the results suggest operational performance benefits in the form of enhanced spacing awareness and a potential reduction in the misidentification of aircraft called out by ATC. No overriding human factors issues were revealed that would negatively impact operational approval of these two applications for traffic environments similar to OpEval. Flight crews identified three issues, display integration, clutter, and head down time, which need to be considered as we proceed with the design and use of CDTI. One potential issue raised by the controllers that needs to be addressed, is that of flight crews initiating unwarranted requests from ATC.

Abstract: In support of the Low-Visibility and Surface Operations element of the Terminal Area Productivity (TAP) Program, the Flight Deck Branch in the Flight Management & Human Factors Division conducted a study aimed at evaluating pilots' ability to navigate around the terminal using an integrated moving map display.

Abstract: A study was conducted that examined areas of a Cockpit Display of Traffic (CDTI) committed to memory during a task that required monitoring of aircraft separation. The data showed that pilots tended to recall aircraft primarily as a function of spatial range and bearing, and not as a function of temporal range.

Abstract: This document may serve as a first step toward the goal of integrating traffic, weather, and terrain information; it provides recommendations for a cockpit display that integrates weather information with traffic information. While some of the recommendations are general enough to be used for any type of operations, these recommendations are targeted for Federal Aviation Regulations Part 121 Operations. In other words, these recommendations are meant to apply only to scheduled, commercial flights. Once these recommendations have been thoroughly validated, a follow-up effort should address the inclusion of terrain in an integrated display.

Abstract: A previous investigation showed that when bright and dim traffic symbols were mixed together on a cockpit display of traffic information, dim targets required longer search times than bright targets. The current experiment utilized Signal Detection methodology to determine the cause of this effect. Two factors were manipulated, Intensity and Mixture. The Intensity manipulation varied whether targets were bright or dim. The Mixture manipulation varied whether the brightness of all aircraft symbols was the same, or if half were bright and half dim. Participants were given 1.25 s to search a display of eight aircraft and determine whether a target was present or absent (50% of the time a target was present) and then rated their confidence in the accuracy of their decision. A Mixture by Intensity repeated-measures ANOVA on the signal detectability measure, A´ (a non-parametric variant of d´), revealed that targets presented at the dim intensity in the mixed condition yielded significantly lower sensitivity than either of the pure (homogenous) conditions or the bright targets in the mixed condition. There was not a significant difference in False Alarm rates between any conditions, indicating no change in decision criterion. Findings are discussed in terms of possible masking effects evoked by bright aircraft over the dim aircraft. (Funding for this work was provided by the Advanced Air Transportation Technologies Project of NASA's Airspace Operation Systems Program).

Abstract: A joint simulation was conducted by NASA Ames and Langley Research Centers. This paper presents flight deck performance and subjective data collected at the NASA Ames Research Center. During the simulation of en route free maneuvering, the presence and mixture of managed and autonomous aircraft was manipulated, as was the number of autonomous aircraft.. These manipulations allowed for an examination of the viability of both conducting mixed AFR-IFR operations, and of substantially increasing en route traffic through insertion of AFR aircraft. The Ames airside performance and pilot comment data support the safety and feasibility of the concept, with double en route capacity appearing to be easily achievable. This work was supported by NASA’s Advanced Air Transportation Technologies (AATT) project.

Abstract: A distributed simulation was conducted between the Flight Deck Display Research Laboratory (FDDRL) of NASA Ames Research Center and the Center for the Study of Advanced Aeronautic Technologies (CSAAT) at California State University, Long Beach to assess the feasibility of flying ROVs in busy terminal environments with commercial traffic. Pilots with glass cockpit experience were recruited to fly one or two ROVs in simulated airspace over water reservoirs near DFW airport, with the major goal of avoiding the approach traffic. Results showed that pilots had a difficult time patrolling the lake without losing separation from the approach traffic. However, their performance did improve with practice. The commercial pilots’ performance in our study suggested that ROV operations in busy terminal airspace were feasible and that they would be comfortable operating in the airspace jointly with ROVs. Strategies for control of a single or multiple ROVs are discussed.

Summary: This presentation compares and contrast the relative utility of two CDTI-based tools for resolving dynamic conflict alerting and dynamic trajectory pulse prediction.

Summary: This presentation describes the design, display, and interaction elements of a cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI) prototype, and how users performed on the CDTI in a simulation.

Summary: This presentation was presented at the 2005 AvPsych conference. It discusses the FDDRL team's efforts in developing conflict detection algorithms, an alerting system, conflict probes, automated resolutions, and the rules of the road component of the automated resolutions system.

Summary: This presentation presents a brief description of the Distributed Air Ground (DAG) Traffic Management simulations, purpose of developing a 3D volumetric Cockpit Situation Display (CSD), demonstrates the functionality of the 3D volumetric CSD and the tools within it. It concludes with a discussion about the pilot reports of the display usability and usefullness.

Summary: In addition to complex high fidelity simulation, cockpit dispaly research has also utilized lower cost and more focused research to help refine display design. One example of this type of research has focused on predictor lengths. These predictors were an important part of the Ames Display evaluated in a previously described simulation study. One result from that study indicated that pilots liked to leave predictors on the display fro prolonged periods of time. Research has shown that future position estimates are better when predictors are longer, but the resulting clutter could obscure other information on the display, expecially when many aircraft are present. Research has also shown that pilots exhibit an angular bias in position predictions. The bias seen resembles a well known visual illusion called the Poggendorff Effect. If this illusion is occuring, it could have an impact on whether an intruding aircraft is considered threatening. Since there is some evidence suggesting that longer predictor lines reduce this bias, the work presented here was performed to determine a sufficient predictor line length, while minimizing clutte. Specifically, this study examined the effects of predictor length and encounter angle on pilots' future position estimates, when presented with a straight line trafectory predictor.

Summary: This presentation described a study that exmined the effects of predictor length and encounter angle on pilots' future position estimates, when presented with a straight line trajectory predictor.

Summary: This presentation describes a study that examined the tradeoff between predictor length and position extrapolation accuracy in a constant speed environment.

Summary: A study was conducted to examine visual search tasks in determining the spatio-temporal distribution of attention on a baseline CDTI. In addition, the study tested for bottom-up effects of brightness highlighting on attentional deployment. This extends previous highlighting research to the case of randomly scattered stimuli.

Summary: This presentation covers the data generated from testing air and ground flight operation concepts, as well as human performance on supporting tools such as the CDTI and ATC displays.

Summary: This presentation describes how display location affects pilots' attention to and memory for display information.

Summary: This was presented at the 2005 AvPsych conference. It covers the contributions of the NASA Ames contribution to the testing of the feasability of the human-in-the-loop test of the En Route Free Maneuvering concept. Results are discussed within the presentation.

Summary: NASA's Advanced Air Transportation Technologies (AATT) office has assembled a multidisciplinary Distributed Air/Ground Traffic Management (DAG-TM) team to explore technologies and procedures that will increase the operational flexibility, predictability, efficiency, and capacity of the NAS. In an effort to achieve this goal, concept elements have been identified that address technologies and procedures for all phases of flight. One element identified for research is Concept Element 11. Concept Element 11 provides a potential alternative to sub-optimal Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) procedures that are utilized during Instrumental Meteorological Conditions (IMC).

Airborne Information for Lateral Spacing
MS Word	Battiste, V., Walter, J., Rager, T., Brown, D., Carpenter, D., Gardner, E., Hanania, N., Jones, J., Ketchum, R., Lambert, D., Malure, I., Mitchell, G., Pires, C., Prehm, T., Renema, F., Saillant, & G., Uyehara (2000). Airborne information for lateral spacing. Flight Simulation Year in Review, 32.
Abstract: Airborne Information for Lateral Spacing (AILS) is an airborne-based concept for independent, instru ment approaches to closely-spaced parallel runways that enables the use of both runways during instrument approach conditions. AILS provides an inde pendent instrument approach capability applicable to parallel runways with centerline spacing between 4,300 and 2,500 feet, the range of runway spacing for most domestic airlines' hub airports. The airlines' ability to maintain schedules is severely impacted when one or more airports are forced to curtail independent parallel approaches because of inclement weather. The AILS system safely maintains high airport acceptance rates, not possible with current systems and procedures, during low visibility conditions.

Airborne Information for Lateral Seperation (AILS)
MS Word	Battiste, V., Johnson, W., Rager, T., Brown, D., Carpenter, Gardner, R., Hanania, N., Jones, J., Ketchum, Lambert, D., Maclure, I., Mitchelle, G., Pires, C., Prehm, T., Renema, F., & Saillant, G. Uyehara (2001). Airborne information for lateral spacing. Flight Simulation Year in Review, 30.
Abstract: This study examined the operational implementation of an airborne system that would support Closely Spaced Parallel Approach (CSPA) operations at airports with parallel runways during Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). Data analyses are in prog ress.

The Arc-Size Illusion as Applied to Planar Displays of Aircraft Traffic Information
MS Word PDF	Comerford, D. & Uhlarik, J. (2001). The Arc-Size Illusion as Applied to Planar Displays of Aircraft Traffic Information. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting, 157-161.
Abstract: Shorter arcs are perceived as having less curvature (i.e., they are “perceptually flattened”), and this phenomenon has been labeled the Arc-size Illusion. This illusion was explored as it relates to planar displays of traffic information. Such displays often represent intent and/or history information with lines. Participants were presented with aircraft traveling on curvilinear paths, and their estimations of future aircraft location were examined. There were three major findings from the study. First, the data suggest that “perceptual flattening” and the Arc-size Illusion do indeed affect predictive judgments about aircraft on curvilinear paths. Second, and most surprising, the data suggest that increasing the size of the arc with a history line does NOT lessen “perceptual flattening.” Third, the data suggest that “perceptual flattening” is especially pronounced when predictor length is relatively short and the judgment location is relatively far. However, the effect of the predictor length essentially disappears when the judgment location is at a distance that is proportional to the predictor length.

A Cockpit Display Designed to Enable Limited Flight Deck Separation Responsibility
MS Word PDF	Johnson, W.W., Battiste, V., and Holland, S. (1999) A cockpit display designed to enable limited flight deck separation responsibility. Transactions - Journal of Aerospace, 108 (1).
Abstract: Cockpit displays need to be substantially improved to serve the goals of situational awareness, conflict detection, and path replanning, in Free Flight. This paper describes the design of such an advanced cockpit display, along with an initial simulation based usability evaluation. Flight crews were particularly enthusiastic about color coding for relative altitude, dynamically pulsing predictors, and the use of 3-D flight plans for alerting and situational awareness.

Comparision of Pilot and Automation Generated Conflict Resolutions
PDF	Johnson, W. W., Bilimoria, K. D., Thomas, L. C., Hilda, Q. L., & Battiste, V. (2003). Comparison of pilot and automation generated conflict resolutions. AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control Conference and Exhibit, Austin, Texas.
Abstract: This study compares and contrasts conflict resolutions as performed by pilots with and without a resolution decision support tool, and a fully automated conflict resolution tool that generates optimal (smallest path deviation) resolutions. The conflict geometries investigated were all factorial combinations of three levels of intruder aircraft speed, three levels of initial Ownship distance to minimum separation, and nine conflict angles. The resolution decision support tools included dynamic conflict alerting, which indicated whether a proposed path was conflict free, and a dynamic predictor system that showed a fast time depiction of the proposed resolution trajectories. The automation-generated resolutions, computed using a geometric optimization algorithm, served as a benchmark against which the pilot-generated resolutions were compared. Without decision support tools the pilot-generated resolutions were often ineffective, particularly at lower conflict angles. The resolutions tended to be effective when the decision support tools were used. Resolution cost, as measured by added path length, was greater for pilot-generated resolutions (averaging 2.7 nm) compared to the automation-generated resolutions (averaging 1.2 nm). When pilots had the decision support tools, their strategies, as indexed by whether they turned toward or away from the Intruder, tended to be the same as that of the automated system.

	PUBLICATIONS
	Download our publications in Microsoft Word (.doc) or Adobe Acrobat (.pdf) formats below. Download our powerpoint presentations. Access publications written in collaboration with the Ames Air Ground Integration Laboratory http://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/ihi/research_groups/air-ground-integration/publications.htm

Development and Integration of Human-Centered Conflict Detection and Resolution Tools for Airborne Autonomous Operations
MS Word	Canton, R., Refai, M., Johnson, W., & Battiste, V. (2005). Development and integration of human-centered conflict detection and resolution tools for airborne autonomous operations. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Oklahoma City, OK.
Abstract: Today’s crowded airspace burdens both the pilot and controller with a heavy workload pertaining to the maintenance of conflict-free flight. Conflict detection and resolution (CD&R) tools have become a key element in modern flight systems and future airspace concept simulations. In this paper we describe an automated resolution tool that was developed at NASA Ames Research Center as part of an experimental evaluation of the Distributed Air-Ground concept. The tool is based on an analysis of conflict geometry and was developed as an intent (i.e. flight plan) resolution system. A key simplifying concept used in the development of airborne automated resolutions is the notion of “Rules of the Road” - a set of rules that uniquely assigns responsibility for the mitigation of a conflict. This paper outlines the challenges in developing such an automated resolution tool, as well as the lessons learned and the limitations observed.

Development and Integration of a Human-Centered Volumetric Cockpit Situation Display for Distributed Air-Ground Operations
MS Word	Granada, S., Dao, A. Q., Wong, D., Johnson, W. W., & Battiste, V. (2005). Development and integration of a human-centered volumetric cockpit display for distributed air-ground operations. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Oklahoma City, OK.
Abstract: In the Distributed Air Ground Traffic Management (DAG-TM) simulation environments pilots flew desktop simulators, which included a Cockpit Situation Display (CSD). Within the current paper we will briefly review the tasks pilots were responsible for in the simulations and subsequently evaluate the tools made available on the CSD to assist the pilots in executing their tasks. Some of the tasks pilots were responsible for in the simulations included the following: to create and evaluate user-preferred routes, meet flight scheduling requirements at the meter fix, self-space behind designated aircraft, and maintain separation with other aircraft. Some of the tools offered within the CSD to facilitate these tasks included a Route Analysis Tool (RAT), a Waypoint table with capabilities to input scheduling requirements, a Spacing tool, and Conflict Detection and Alerting logic. A detailed examination of these features and others will be discussed

Development and Demonstration of a Prototype Free Flight Cockpit Display of Traffic Information
MS Word PDF	Johnson, W.W., Battiste, V., Delzell, S., Holland, S., Belcher, S. Jordan, K. (1997). Development and Demonstration of a Prototype Free Flight Cockpit Display of Traffic Information. Proceedings of the 1997 SAE/AIAA World Aviation Congress.
Abstract: Two versions of a prototype Free Flight cockpit situational display (Basic and Enhanced) were examined in a simulation at the NASA Ames Research Center. Both displays presented a display of traffic out to a range of 120 NM, and an alert when the automation detected a substantial danger of losing separation with another aircraft. The task for the crews was to detect and resolve threats to separation posed by intruder aircraft. An Enhanced version of the display was also examined. It incorporated two additional conflict alerting levels and tools to aid in trajectory prediction and path planning. Ten crews from a major airline participated in the study. Performance analyses and pilot debriefings showed that the Enhanced display was preferred, and that minimal separation between the intruder and the ownship was larger with the Enhanced display. In addition, the additional information on the Enhanced display did not lead crews to engage in more maneuvering. Instead an opposite trend was indicated. Finally, crews using the Enhanced display responded more proactively, tending to resolve alerts earlier.

Distributed Air-Ground Demonstration
MS Word	Lozito, S., Battiste, V., Johnson, W., Smith, N., Rager, T., Prevot, T., Bryant, D., Panda, R., & Uyehara, G. (2001). Distributed air-ground demonstration. Flight Simulation Year in Review, 32.
Abstract: This study examined the operational implementation of an airborne system that would support Closely Spaced Parallel Approach (CSPA) operations at airports with parallel runways during Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC).

Distributed Air-Ground Demonstration 2002
MS Word	Mogford, R., Lozito, S., Palmer, E., Battiste, V., Johnson, J., Smith, N., Rager, T., Steglinski, M., Prevot, T., Cornell, R., Brown, D., Darling, D., Panda, R., Uyehara, G., Wilkins, D., Lehmer, R., Rosado, J., Lee, B., Izrailov, M., Pethtel, M., & Crawford, T. (2002). Distributed air-ground demonstration 2002. Flight Simulation Year in Review, 20.
Abstract: Distributed Air-Ground (DAG) research examines interactions between the airborne flight crew and ground-based air traffic controllers. A controller facility and several separate locations of simulated piloted aircraft were linked to create the air traffic environ ment. This simulation demonstrated technologies and procedures related to DAG concepts in the Advanced Concepts Flight Simulator (ACFS).

Distributed Air / Ground Traffic Management En-route Free Maneuvering Rules of the Road: Requirements and Implementation for a Simulation of En-route Self-Separation
MS Word	Johnson, N. H., Canton, R., Battiste, V., & Johnson, W. (2005). Distributed air/ground traffic management en-route free maneuvering rules of the road: requirements and implementation for a simulation of en-route self-seperation. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Oklahoma City, OK.
Abstract: National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Distributed Air Ground Traffic Management (DAG-TM) program has recently investigated a concept called “En-route Free Maneuvering” as a proposed solution for expanding airspace capacity limits. A critical element for this concept is conflict detection and resolution (CD&R) using the 3D cockpit situation display (CSD). The only fielded system performing some of this function is the Traffic Alert & Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), a radar-based alerting system used by most commercial aircraft for collision detection and avoidance. TCAS is inappropriate for an en-route self-separation application due to its reactive nature, and inherent lack of flexibility. Therefore, a new system was designed with improved intent information in the form of 4D flight plans, broadcast and shared amongst en-route aircraft, which in turn allowed these aircraft to detect and resolve conflicts well in advance of a projected conflict. A key element in this approach is ensuring that burdening, the assignment of final responsibility for conflict resolution is clearly assigned to the aircraft not in right-of-way. The basis for this burdening is called the rules-of-the-road (ROR), a term taken from the rules designed for guiding collision avoidance in VFR (visual flight rules). Given the potential complexity of determining burdening assignment, the automation described herein computes assignment using these rules, and then notifies the crew if it has the right-of-way or is burdened to resolve the conflict.

Effects of Symbol Brightness Cueing on Attention During a Visual Search of a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (2002)
PDF	Johnson, W. W., Liao, M., & Granada, S. (2002). Effects of Symbol Brightness Cueing on Attention During a Visual Search of a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 46th Annual Meeting, Baltimore, Maryland.
Abstract: This study investigated visual search performance for target aircraft symbols on a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI). Of primary interest was the influence of target brightness (intensity) and highlighting validity (search directions) on the ability to detect a target aircraft among distractor aircraft. Target aircraft were distinguished by an airspace course that conflicted with Ownship (that is, the participant’s aircraft). The display could present all (homogenous) bright aircraft, all (homogenous) dim aircraft, or mixed bright and dim aircraft, with the target aircraft being either bright or dim. In the mixed intensity condition, participants may or may not have been instructed whether the target aircraft was bright or dim. Results indicated that highlighting validity facilitated better detection times. However, instead of bright targets being detected faster, dim targets were found to be detected more slowly in the mixed intensity display than in the homogenous display. This relative slowness may be due to a delay in confirming the dim aircraft to be a target when it was among brighter distractor aircraft. This hypothesis will be tested in future research.

The Effect of Symbology Location and Format on Attentional Deployment within a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information
PDF	Johnson, W. W., Liao, M., and Tse, S. (1999). The effect of symbology location and format on attentional deployment within a cockpit display of traffic information. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 43rd Annual Meeting, Houston, Texas.
Abstract: The present experiment employed target detection tasks to investigate attentional deployment during visual search for target aircraft symbols on a cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI). Targets were defined by either a geometric property (aircraft on a collision course with Ownship) or a textual property (aircraft with associated altitude tags indicating an even altitude level). Effects of target location and target brightness (highlighting) were examined. Target location was systematically related to target detection time, and this interacted with the target's defining property (collision geometry or associated text). Highlighting (which was not linked to whether an aircraft symbol was the target) did not influence target detection time.

Effects of transformed visual-motor spatial mappings and droplines on 3-D target acquisition strategy and performance
MS Word	Liao, M. & Johnson, W. W. (2001). Effect of transformed visual-motor spatial mappings and droplines on 3-D target acquisition strategy and performance. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 45th Annual Meeting, Minneapolis/ St. Paul, Minnesota, 1367-1371.
Abstract: This study investigated effects of transformed visual-motor mappings and a depth cue dropline on a 3-D target acquisition task. A cursor and target were displayed within a 3-D reference framework ”Box” and participants were instructed to move the cursor into the target as quickly and accurately as possible by manipulating a 3-D input device called a “Spaceball.” The Box was presented with several lateral orientations. By tying the Spaceball movements to the frame of reference defined by the Box, the visual-motor mapping was transformed. Additionally, a depth cue dropline was manipulated. With the transformed mappings, movement times and path lengths to acquire the targets increased as the Box rotation angle increased. Droplines reduced movement times and path lengths. Participants’ general acquisition strategy was to sequentially acquire the azimuth, elevation, and then range dimensions of the target, i.e., first visually overlapping the target with the cursor, and then acquiring the target along the line of the sight.

Enabling Strategic Flight Deck Route Re-Planning Within A Modified ATC Environment: The Display of 4-D Intent Information on a CSD
MS Word PDF	Battiste, V., Johnson, W., & Holland Bochow, S. (2000). Enabling strategic flight deck route re-planning within a modified ATC enviornment: the display of 4-D intent information on a CSD.
Abstract: The concept of free flight introduces many challenges for both air and ground aviation operations. Of considerable concern has been the issue of moving from centralized control and responsibility to decentralized control and distributed responsibility for aircraft separation. Data from capacity studies suggest that we will reach our capacity limits with ATC centralized control within the next 2 decades, if not sooner. Based on these predictions, research on distributed air-ground concepts was under taken by NASA Advanced Air Transportation Technologies Program to identify and develop air-ground concepts in support of free-flight operations. This paper will present the results of a full mission air-ground simulation conducted in the NASA Crew Vehicle Systems Research Facility. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effect of advanced displays with “intent” (4-D flight plans) information on flight crew and ATC performance during limited free-flight operations. To assess the value of 4/D intent information (flight plans) flight crews performed real time, strategic, flight path re-planning with and without flight plan information on surround traffic during en route free flight operations. To support the re-planning task flight crews used an enhanced cockpit situation display (CSD) and a route assessment tool to identify traffic conflicts and develop alternative de-conflicted flight plans. The modified de-conflicted flight plan was then submitted to ATC for approval, and after approval loaded into the autopilot (FMS). Two levels of ATC authority were evaluated during the study: (1) limited authority – ATC would only intervene if a loss of separation were imminent; (2) full authority – ATC would run the sector as they would normally. After loading the new flight plan it was data linked to all surrounding traffic. The results of the study suggest that flight crews with advanced 4-D flight plan information can perform strategic self-separation during operations in densely populated traffic environments. And when ATC remains in the information and approval loop, flight deck strategic self-separation is not disruptive to normal ATC sector operations. The results also showed that when flight crews had access to 4-D flight plan information they were more efficient and their workload was reduced; they made smaller deviations for traffic, reduced their trip length for non-traffic related maneuvers, and had fewer ARAT (advanced route assessment tool) events. Crew responses to 3-D and 4-D traffic information, display de-clutter features, and the advanced flight re-planning tools were positive overall, however they rated both dial and touch-pad input controls neutral.

Evaluation of the Usefulness and Usability of Cockpit Situation Display Perspectives for ROV Operations in Approach Civil Air Space
MS Word	Dao, A.-Q. V., Battiste, V., Granada-Vigil, S., & Johnson, W. W. (2006). Evaluation of the usefulness and usability of cockpit situation display perspectives for ROV operations in approach civil air space. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 50th Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA.
Abstract: A distributed simulation of ROV operations was conducted by NASA Ames Flight Deck Display Research Laboratory (FDDRL) and the Center for Aeronautic Technologies (CSAAT) at California State University, Long Beach. The goals of this simulation were 1) to examine ROV operators' ability to maintain standard terminal separation from other aircraft and ROVs, 2) to examine the possibility of operating ROVs in terminal airspace without major disruptions in the inbound traffic flows, and 3) to evaluate proposed ROV operator tools. The current paper focuses on this third goal. Specifically the paper describes the motivation behind the development of the manipulatable 2D/3D Cockpit Situation Display (CSD), and examines its usefulness and usability. Data from questionnaires, and from observations of how the CSD was used, suggest that both the CSD format, and the ability to manipulate the CSD viewing angle, were useful and usable. However, workload appeared to play an important role in the perceived usefulness and usability of the CSD.

Human Centered Decision Support Tools for Arrival Merging and Spacing
MS Word	Battiste, V., Palmer, E., Johnson, W., Smith, N., Prevot, T., Mercer, J., Granada, S., Johnson, N., Dao, Q., & Lee, P. (2005). Human centered decision support tools for arrival merging and spacing.
Abstract: A simulation of terminal area merging and spacing with air traffic controllers and commercial flight crews was conducted. The goal of the study was to assess the feasibility and benefits of ground and flight-deck based tools to support arrival merging and spacing operations. During the simulation, flight crews arrived over the northwest and southwest arrival meter fixes and were cleared for the flight management system arrivals to runways 18 and 13 right. The controller could then clear the aircraft to merge behind and space with an aircraft on a converging stream or to space behind an aircraft on the same stream of traffic. The controller remained responsible for aircraft separation. Empirical research was performed to assess air and ground tools and the effects of mixed equipage. During the all tools conditions, 75% of the arrivals were equipped for merging and spacing. All aircraft were ADS-B equipped and flew charted FMS routes which were coordinated based on wake turbulence separation at the arrival runway. The aircraft spacing data indicate that spacing and merging were improved with either air or ground based merging and spacing tools, but performance was best with airborne tools. Both controllers and pilots exhibited low to moderate workload and both reported benefits from the concept.

The Human Element in Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) Flight Operations
MS Word	Livack, G., McDaniel, J., Battiste, V, & Johnson, W. (1999). Human factors considerations in automatic dependent surveillance - Broadcast (ADS-B) flight operations. In the Proceedings of ICAO's Fourth Global Flight Safety and Human Factors Symposium, Santiago, Chile, April 12-15, 1999.
Abstract: This paper discusses some of the technical and institutional human factors-related issues surrounding the subject of the human element in ADS-B flight operations. It also proposes a procedural-based rulemaking strategy. This strategy would facilitate further development and implementation of the human factors and enabling flight technical standards and operational procedures needed to make free flight acceptable to the pilot, controller, the user community, and to the certification authorities. The principal finding of this paper is that we are now at the brink of having sufficient knowledge from which to develop a new set of operating rules—Free Flight operational “rules of engagement”—termed Electronic Flight Rules (EFR).

Initial Evaluation of CDTI/ADS-B for Commercial Carriers: CAA’s Ohio Valley Operational Evaluation
PDF	Battiste, V., Ashford, R., & Olmos, B. O. (2000). Initial evaluation of CDTI/ADS-B for commercial carriers: CAA's ohio valley operational evaluation. Society of Automotive Engineers.
Abstract: Flight activities during the Cargo Airline Association’s Ohio Valley Operations Evaluation (OpEval) were focused on near-term Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI) applications. Seven CDTI applications were ranked from highest to lowest priority, and the first two, Enhanced Visual Acquisition for “See & Avoid”, and Enhanced Visual Approaches, were evaluated during OpEval. Five other applications were demonstrated. For tetailed, he Enhanced Visual Acquisition and Enhanced Visual Approach applications, a dcomprehensive operational concept document was prepared. The operational concept and the associated CDTI requirements were tested during OpEval. Both pilots and controllers reported that the CDTI augmented the visual acquisition and visual approach tasks and improved pilot awareness of surrounding traffic. Additionally, the results suggest operational performance benefits in the form of enhanced spacing awareness and a potential reduction in the misidentification of aircraft called out by ATC. No overriding human factors issues were revealed that would negatively impact operational approval of these two applications for traffic environments similar to OpEval. Flight crews identified three issues, display integration, clutter, and head down time, which need to be considered as we proceed with the design and use of CDTI. One potential issue raised by the controllers that needs to be addressed, is that of flight crews initiating unwarranted requests from ATC.

Moving Map Display
MS Word	Battiste, V. & Downs, M. (1995). Moving map display. Flight Simulation Annual Report, 29.
Abstract: In support of the Low-Visibility and Surface Operations element of the Terminal Area Productivity (TAP) Program, the Flight Deck Branch in the Flight Management & Human Factors Division conducted a study aimed at evaluating pilots' ability to navigate around the terminal using an integrated moving map display.

Pilots’ Spatial Mental Models for Memory of Heading and Altitude
MS Word PDF	Delzell, S., Johnson, W., & Liao, M. (1998). Pilots’ spatial mental models for memory of heading and altitude. Proceedings of the 17 th Digital Avionics Systems Conference, Bellevue, Washington.
Abstract: A study was conducted that examined areas of a Cockpit Display of Traffic (CDTI) committed to memory during a task that required monitoring of aircraft separation. The data showed that pilots tended to recall aircraft primarily as a function of spatial range and bearing, and not as a function of temporal range.

Recommendations for a Cockpit Display that Integrates Weather Information with Traffic Information
MS Word PDF	Comerford, D. (2004). Recommendations for a cockpit display of traffic information.
Abstract: This document may serve as a first step toward the goal of integrating traffic, weather, and terrain information; it provides recommendations for a cockpit display that integrates weather information with traffic information. While some of the recommendations are general enough to be used for any type of operations, these recommendations are targeted for Federal Aviation Regulations Part 121 Operations. In other words, these recommendations are meant to apply only to scheduled, commercial flights. Once these recommendations have been thoroughly validated, a follow-up effort should address the inclusion of terrain in an integrated display.

Sensitivity and Bias in searches of Cockpit Display of Traffic Information Utilizing Highlighting/Lowlighting
MS Word	Johnson, W.W., Jordan, K., Liao, & Granada, S. (2003). Sensitivity and bias in searches of cockpit display of traffic information utilizing highlighting/lowlighting. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Dayton, Ohio.
Abstract: A previous investigation showed that when bright and dim traffic symbols were mixed together on a cockpit display of traffic information, dim targets required longer search times than bright targets. The current experiment utilized Signal Detection methodology to determine the cause of this effect. Two factors were manipulated, Intensity and Mixture. The Intensity manipulation varied whether targets were bright or dim. The Mixture manipulation varied whether the brightness of all aircraft symbols was the same, or if half were bright and half dim. Participants were given 1.25 s to search a display of eight aircraft and determine whether a target was present or absent (50% of the time a target was present) and then rated their confidence in the accuracy of their decision. A Mixture by Intensity repeated-measures ANOVA on the signal detectability measure, A´ (a non-parametric variant of d´), revealed that targets presented at the dim intensity in the mixed condition yielded significantly lower sensitivity than either of the pure (homogenous) conditions or the bright targets in the mixed condition. There was not a significant difference in False Alarm rates between any conditions, indicating no change in decision criterion. Findings are discussed in terms of possible masking effects evoked by bright aircraft over the dim aircraft. (Funding for this work was provided by the Advanced Air Transportation Technologies Project of NASA's Airspace Operation Systems Program).

A Simulation Evaluation of a Human-Centered Approach to Flight Deck Procedures and Automation for En Route Free Maneuvering
MS Word	Johnson, W. W., Battiste, V., Granada, S., Johnson, N., Dao, A. Q., Wong, D., & Tang, A. (2005). A simulation evaluation of a human-centered approach to flight deck procedures and automation for en route free maneuvering. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Oklahoma City, OK.
Abstract: A joint simulation was conducted by NASA Ames and Langley Research Centers. This paper presents flight deck performance and subjective data collected at the NASA Ames Research Center. During the simulation of en route free maneuvering, the presence and mixture of managed and autonomous aircraft was manipulated, as was the number of autonomous aircraft.. These manipulations allowed for an examination of the viability of both conducting mixed AFR-IFR operations, and of substantially increasing en route traffic through insertion of AFR aircraft. The Ames airside performance and pilot comment data support the safety and feasibility of the concept, with double en route capacity appearing to be easily achievable. This work was supported by NASA’s Advanced Air Transportation Technologies (AATT) project.

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So You Want to Fly Remotely Operated Vehicles in Civil Approach Air Space
MS Word	Battiste, V., Dao, A.-Q. V., Strybel, T. Z., Dion, M., & Bertolli, H. (2006). So you want to fly remotely operated vehicles in civil approach air space. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 50th Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA.
Abstract: A distributed simulation was conducted between the Flight Deck Display Research Laboratory (FDDRL) of NASA Ames Research Center and the Center for the Study of Advanced Aeronautic Technologies (CSAAT) at California State University, Long Beach to assess the feasibility of flying ROVs in busy terminal environments with commercial traffic. Pilots with glass cockpit experience were recruited to fly one or two ROVs in simulated airspace over water reservoirs near DFW airport, with the major goal of avoiding the approach traffic. Results showed that pilots had a difficult time patrolling the lake without losing separation from the approach traffic. However, their performance did improve with practice. The commercial pilots’ performance in our study suggested that ROV operations in busy terminal airspace were feasible and that they would be comfortable operating in the airspace jointly with ROVs. Strategies for control of a single or multiple ROVs are discussed.

An Evaluation of CDTI Dynamic Predictor Display Technology
Powerpoint	Johnson, W. W., Thomas, L., & Battiste, V. (2000).
Summary: This presentation compares and contrast the relative utility of two CDTI-based tools for resolving dynamic conflict alerting and dynamic trajectory pulse prediction.

Development and Demonstration of a Prototype Free Flight Cockpit Display of Traffic Information
Powerpoint	Johnson, W. W., Battiste, V., Delzell, S., Holland, S. Belcher, S., & Jordan, K.
Summary: This presentation describes the design, display, and interaction elements of a cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI) prototype, and how users performed on the CDTI in a simulation.

Development and Integration of Human-Centered Confict Detection and Resolution Tools for Airborne Autonomous Operations
Powerpoint	Canton, R., Refai, M., Johnson, W. W., & Battiste, V. (2005).
Summary: This presentation was presented at the 2005 AvPsych conference. It discusses the FDDRL team's efforts in developing conflict detection algorithms, an alerting system, conflict probes, automated resolutions, and the rules of the road component of the automated resolutions system.

Effect of Predictor Length and Encounter Geometry on Estimates of Future Position
Powerpoint	Flight Deck Display Research Laboratory
Summary: In addition to complex high fidelity simulation, cockpit dispaly research has also utilized lower cost and more focused research to help refine display design. One example of this type of research has focused on predictor lengths. These predictors were an important part of the Ames Display evaluated in a previously described simulation study. One result from that study indicated that pilots liked to leave predictors on the display fro prolonged periods of time. Research has shown that future position estimates are better when predictors are longer, but the resulting clutter could obscure other information on the display, expecially when many aircraft are present. Research has also shown that pilots exhibit an angular bias in position predictions. The bias seen resembles a well known visual illusion called the Poggendorff Effect. If this illusion is occuring, it could have an impact on whether an intruding aircraft is considered threatening. Since there is some evidence suggesting that longer predictor lines reduce this bias, the work presented here was performed to determine a sufficient predictor line length, while minimizing clutte. Specifically, this study examined the effects of predictor length and encounter angle on pilots' future position estimates, when presented with a straight line trafectory predictor.

Effect of Predictor Length and Encounter Geometry on Estimates of Future Position
Powerpoint	Holland. S.
Summary: This presentation described a study that exmined the effects of predictor length and encounter angle on pilots' future position estimates, when presented with a straight line trajectory predictor.

Effect of Predictor Length on Conflict Detection in a Cockpit Display
Powerpoint	Holland, S
Summary: This presentation describes a study that examined the tradeoff between predictor length and position extrapolation accuracy in a constant speed environment.

Effect of Symbology Location and Format on Attentional Deployment on a Cockpit Display of Traffic Information
Powerpoint	Johnson, W. W., Liao, M., & Tse, S.
Summary: A study was conducted to examine visual search tasks in determining the spatio-temporal distribution of attention on a baseline CDTI. In addition, the study tested for bottom-up effects of brightness highlighting on attentional deployment. This extends previous highlighting research to the case of randomly scattered stimuli.

Enabling Strategic Flight Deck Route Re-Planning Within A Modified ATC Environment: The Display of 4D Intent Information on a CSD
Powerpoint	Battiste, V. & Johnson, W. W.
Summary: This presentation covers the data generated from testing air and ground flight operation concepts, as well as human performance on supporting tools such as the CDTI and ATC displays.

Pilot's Spatial Mental Models for Memory of Heading and Altitude
Powerpoint	Delzell, S., Johnson, W., & Liao, M. (1998).
Summary: This presentation describes how display location affects pilots' attention to and memory for display information.